the fossil remains of the first flying vertebrates， the pterosaurs， have intrigued paleontologists for more than two centuries. how such large creatures， which weighed in some cases as much as a piloted hang-glider and had wingspans from 8 to 12 meters， solved the problems of powered flight， and exactly what these creatures were-reptiles or birds are among the questions scientists have puzzled over.
perhaps the least controversial assertion about the pterosaurs is that they were reptiles. their skulls pelvises， and hind feet are reptilian. the anatomy of their wings suggests that they did not evolve into the class of birds. in pterosaurs a greatly elongated fourth finger of each forelimb supported a wing like membrane. the other fingers were short and reptilian， with sharp claws. in birds the second finger is the principal strut of the wing， which consists primarily of feathers. if the pterosaurs walked on all fours， the three short fingers may have been employed for grasping. when a pterosaur walked or remained stationary， the fourth finger， and with it the wing， could only turn upward in an extended inverted v-shape along each side of the animal's body.
the pterosaurs resembled both birds and bats in their overall structure and proportions. this is not surprising because the design of any flying vertebrate is subject to aerodynamic constraints. both the pterosaurs and the birds have hollow bones， a feature that represents a savings in weight. in the birds， however， these bones are reinforced more massively by internal struts.
although scales typically cover reptiles， the pterosaurs probably had hairy coats. t.h. huxley reasoned that flying vertebrates must have been warm blooded because flying implies a high rate of metabolism， which in turn implies a high internal temperature. huxley speculated that a coat of hair would insulate against loss of body heat and might streamline the body to reduce drag in flight. the recent discovery of a pterosaur specimen covered in long， dense， and relatively thick hair like fossil material was the first clear evidence that his reasoning was correct.
efforts to explain how the pterosaurs because airborne have led to suggestions that they launched themselves by jumping from cliffs， by dropping from trees or even by rising into light winds from the crests of waves. each hypothesis has its difficulties. the first wrongly assumes that the pterosaurs' hind feet resembled a bat's and could serve as hooks by which the animal could hang in preparation for flight. the second hypothesis seems unlikely because large pterosaurs could not have landed in trees without damaging their wings. the third calls for high waves to channel updrafts. the wind that made such waves however might have been too strong for the pterosaurs to control their flight once airborne.
1.it can be inferred from the passage that scientists now generally agree that the
（a） enormous wingspan of the pterosaurs enabled them to fly great distances
（b） structure of the skeleton of the pterosaurs suggests a close evolutionary relationship to bats
（c） fossil remains of the pterosaurs reveal how they solved the problem of powered flight
（d） pterosaurs were reptiles
（e） pterosaurs walked on all fours
2.the author views the idea that the pterosaurs became airborne by rising into light winds created by waves as
（a） revolutionary
（b） unlikely
（c） unassailable
（d） probable
（e） outdated
3.according to the passage， the skeleton of a pterosaur can be distinguished from that of a bird by the
（a） size of its wingspan
（b） presence of hollow spaces in its bones
（c） anatomic origin of its wing strut
（d） presence of hook like projections on its hind feet
（e） location of the shoulder joint joining the wing to its body
4.the ideas attributed to t.h. huxiey in the passage suggest that he would most likely agree with which of the following statements？
（a） an animal's brain size has little bearing on its ability to master complex behaviors.
（b） an animal's appearance is often influenced by environmental requirements and physical capabilities.
（c） animals within a given family group are unlikely to change their appearance dramatically over a period of time.
（d） the origin of flight in vertebrates was an accidental development rather than the outcome of specialization or adaptation.
（e） the pterosaurs should be classified as birds， not reptiles.
5.it can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is characteristic of the pterosaurs？
（a） they were unable to fold their wings when not in use.
（b） they hung upside down from branches as bats do before flight.
（c） they flew in order to capture prey.
（d） they were an early stage in the evolution of the birds.
（e） they lived primarily in a forest like habitat.
6.which of the following best describes the organization of the last paragraph of the passage？
（a） new evidence is introduced to support a traditional point of view.
（b） three explanations for a phenomenon are presented， and each is disputed by means of specific information.
（c） three hypotheses are outlined， and evidence supporting each is given.
（d） recent discoveries are described， and their implications for future study are projected.
（e） a summary of the material in the preceding paragraphs is presented， and conclusions are drawn.
7.it can be inferred from the passage that some scientists believe that pterosaurs
（a） lived near large bodies of water
（b） had sharp teeth for tearing food
（c） were attacked and eaten by larger reptiles
（d） had longer tails than many birds
（e） consumed twice their weight daily to maintain their body temperature
passage 2
in the eighteenth century， japan's feudal overlords， from the shogun to the humblest samurai， found themselves under financial stress. in part， this stress can be attributed to the overlords' failure to adjust to a rapidly expanding economy， but the stress was also due to factors beyond the overlords' control. concentration of the samurai in castle-towns had acted as a stimulus to trade. commercial efficiency， in turn， had put temptations in the way of buyers. since most samurai had been reduced to idleness by years of peace， encouraged to engage in scholarship and martial exercises or to perform administrative tasks that took little time， it is not surprising that their tastes and habits grew expensive.
overlords' income， despite the in-crease in rice production among their tenant farmers， failed to keep pace with their expenses. although shortfalls in overlords' income resulted almost as much from laxity among their tax collectors （the nearly inevitable outcome of hereditary office holding） as from their higher standards of living， a misfortune like a fire or flood， bringing an increase in expenses or a drop in revenue， could put a domain in debt to the city rice-brokers who handled its finances. once in debt， neither the individual samurai nor the shogun himself found it easy to recover.
it was difficult for individual samurai over- lords to increase their income because the amount of rice that farmers could be made to pay in taxes was not unlimited， and since the income of japan's central government consisted impart of taxes collected by the shogun from his
huge domain， the government too was con-strained. therefore， the tokugawa shoguns began to look to other sources for revenue. cash profits from government-owned mines were already on the decline because the most easily worked deposits of silver and gold had been exhausted， although debasement of the coinage had compensated for the loss
opening up new farmland was a possibility， but most of what was suitable had already been exploited and further reclamation was technically unfeasible. direct taxation of the samurai themselves would be politically dangerous. this left the shoguns only commerce as a potential source of government income.
most of the country's wealth， or so it seemed， was finding its way into the hands of city merchants. it appeared reasonable that they should contribute part of that revenue to ease the shogun's burden of financing the state. a means of obtaining such revenue was soon found by levying forced loans， known as goyokin； although these were not taxes in the strict sense， since they were irregular in timing and arbitrary in amount， they were high in yield. unfortunately， they pushed up prices. thus， regrettably， the tokugawa shoguns' search for solvency for the government made it increasingly difficult for individual japanese who lived on fixed stipends to make ends meet.
1.the passage is most probably an excerpt from
（a） an economic history of japan
（b） the memoirs of a samurai warrior
（c） a modern novel about eighteenth-century japan
（d） an essay contrasting japanese feudalism with its western counterpart
（e） an introduction to a collection of japanese folktales
2.which of the following financial situations is most analogous to the financial situation in which japan's tokugawa shoguns found themselves in the eighteenth century？
（a） a small business borrows heavily to invest in new equipment， but is able to pay off its debt early when it is awarded a lucrative government contract.
（b） fire destroys a small business， but insurance covers the cost of rebuilding.
（c） a small business is turned down for a loan at a local bank because the owners have no credit history.
（d） a small business has to struggles to meet operating expenses when its profits decrease.
（e） a small business is able to cut back sharply spending through greater commercial efficiency and thereby compensate for a loss of revenue.
3.which of the following best describes the attitude of the author toward the samurai discussed in lines 11-16？
（a） warmly approving
（b） mildly sympathetic
（c） bitterly disappointed
（d） harshly disdainful
（e） profoundly shocked
4.according to the passage， the major reason for the financial problems experienced by japan's feudal overlords in the eighteenth century was that
（a） spending had outdistanced income
（b） trade had fallen off
（c） profits from mining had declined
（d） the coinage had been sharply debased
（e） the samurai had concentrated in castle towns
5.the passage implies that individual samurai did not find it easy to recover from debt for which of the following reasons？
（a） agricultural production had increased.
（b） taxes were irregular in timing and arbitrary in amount.
（c） the japanese government had failed to adjust to the needs of a changing economy.
（d） the domains of samurai overlords were becoming smaller and poorer as government revenues increased.
（e） there was a limit to the amount in taxes that farmers could be made to pay.
6.the passage suggests that， in eighteenth-century japan， the office of tax collector
（a） was a source of personal profit to the officeholder
（b） was regarded with derision by many japanese
（c） remained within families
（d） existed only in castle-towns
（e） took up most of the officeholder's time
7.which of the following could best be substituted for the word “this ” in line 47 without changing the meaning of the passage？
（a） the search of japan's tokugawa shoguns for solvency
（b） the importance of commerce in feudal japan
（c） the unfairness of the tax structure in eighteenth century japan
（d） the difficulty of increasing government income by other means
（e） the difficulty experienced by both individual samurai and the shogun himself in extricating themselves from debt
8.the passage implies that which of the following was the primary reason why the tokugawa shoguns turned to city merchants for help in financing the state？
（a） a series of costly wars had depleted the national treasury.
（b） most of the country's wealth appeared to be in city merchants' hands.
（c） japan had suffered a series of economic reversals due to natural disasters such as floods.
（d） the merchants were already heavily indebted to the shoguns.
（e） further reclamation of land would not have been economically advantageous.
9.according to the passage， the actions of the tokugawa shoguns in their search for solvency for the government were regrettable because those actions
（a） raised the cost of living by pushing up prices
（b） resulted in the exhaustion of the most easily worked deposits of silver and gold
（c） were far lower in yield than had originally been anticipated
（d） did not succeed in reducing government spending
（e） acted as a deterrent to trade
passage 3
in the two decades between 1910 and 1930， over ten percent of the black population of the united states left the south， where the preponderance of the black population had been located， and migrated to northern states， with the largest number moving， it is claimed， between 1916 and 1918. it has been frequently assumed， but not proved， that the majority of the migrants in what has come to be called the great migration came from rural areas and were motivated by two concurrent factors： the collapse of the cotton industry following the boll weevil infestation， which began in 1898， and increased demand in the north for labor following the cessation of european immigration caused by the outbreak of the first world war in 1914. this assumption has led to the conclusion that the migrants' subsequent lack of economic mobility in the north is tied to rural background， a background that implies unfamiliarity with urban living and a lack of industrial skills.
but the question of who actually left the south has never been rigorously investigated. although numerous investigations document an exodus from rural southern areas to southern cities prior to the great migration， no one has considered whether the same migrants then moved on to northern cities. in 1910 over 600，000 black workers， or ten percent of the black work force， reported themselves to be engaged in “manufacturing and mechanical pursuits，” the federal census category roughly encompassing the entire industrial sector. the great migration could easily have been made up entirely of this group and their families. it is perhaps surprising to argue that an employed population could be enticed to move， but an explanation lies in the labor conditions then prevalent in the south.
about thirty-five percent of the urban black lation in the south was engaged in skilled trades. some were from the old artisan class of slavery-black smiths， masons， carpenters which had had a monopoly of certain trades， but they were gradually being pushed out by competition， mechanization， and obsolescence. the remaining sixty-five percent， more recently urbanized， worked in newly developed industries-tobacco， lumber， coal and iron manufacture， and railroads. wages in the south， however， were low， and black workers were aware， through labor recruiters and the black press， that they could earn more even as unskilled workers in the north than they could as artisans in the south. after the boll weevil infestation， urban black
workers faced competition from the continuing influx of both black and white rural workers， who were drive to undercut the wages formerly paid for industrial jobs. thus， a move north would be seen as advantageous to a group that was already urbanized and steadily employed， and the easy conclusion tying their subsequent economic problems in the north to their rural background comes into question.
1. the author indicates explicitly that which of the following records has been a source of information in her investigation？
（a） united states immigration service reports from 1914 to 1930
（b） payrolls of southern manufacturing firms between 1910 and 1930
（c） the volume of cotton exports between 1898 and 1910
（d） the federal census of 1910
（e） advertisements of labor recruiters appearing in southern newspapers after 1910
2. in the passage， the author anticipates which of the following as a possible objection to her argument？
（a） it is uncertain how many people actually migrated during the great migration.
（b） the eventual economic status of the great migration migrants has not been adequately traced.
（c） it is not likely that people with steady jobs would have reason to move to another area of the country.
（d） it is not true that the term “manufacturing and mechanical pursuits” actually encompasses the entire industrial sector.
（e） of the black workers living in southern cities， only those in a small number of trades were threatened by obsolescence.
3. according to the passage， which of the following is true of wages in southern cities in 1910？
（a） they were being pushed lower as a result of increased competition.
（b） they had begun to rise so that southern industry could attract rural workers.
（c） they had increased for skilled workers but decreased for unskilled workers.
（d） they had increased in large southern cities but decreased in small southern cities.
（e） they had increased in newly developed industries but decreased in the older trades.
4 the author cites each of the following as possible influences in a black worker's decision to migrate north in the great migration except
（a） wage levels in northern cities
（b） labor recruiters
（c） competition from rural workers
（d） voting rights in northern states
（e） the black press
5. it can be inferred from the passage that the “easy conclusion” mentioned in line 53 is based on which of the following assumptions？
（a） people who migrate from rural areas to large cities usually do so for economic reasons.
（b） most people who leave rural areas to take jobs in cities return to rural areas as soon as it is financially possible for them to do so.
（c） people with rural backgrounds are less likely to succeed economically in cities than are those with urban backgrounds.
（d） most people who were once skilled worker are not willing to work as unskilled workers.
（e） people who migrate from their birthplaces to other regions of a country seldom undertake a second migration.
6. the primary purpose of the passage is to
（a） support an alternative to an accepted methodology
（b） present evidence that resolves a contradiction
（c） introduce a recently discovered source of information
（d） challenge a widely accepted explanation
（e） argue that a discarded theory deserves new attention
7. according to information in the passage， which of the following is a correct sequence of groups of workers， from highest paid to lowest paid， in the period between 1910 and 1930？
（a） artisans in the north； artisans in the south； unskilled workers in the north； unskilled workers in the south
（b） artisans in the north and south； unskilled workers in the north； unskilled workers in the south
（c） artisans in the north； unskilled workers in the north； artisans in the south
（d） artisans in the north and south； unskilled urban workers in the north； unskilled rural workers in the south
（e） artisans in the north and south； unskilled rural workers in the north and south； unskilled urban workers in the north and south
8. the material in the passage would be most relevant to a long discussion of which of the following topics？
（a） the reasons for the subsequent economic difficulties of those who participated in the great migration
（b） the effect of migration on the regional economies of the united states following the first world war
（c） the transition from a rural to an urban existence for those who migrated in the great migration
（d） the transformation of the agricultural south following the boll weevil infestation
（e） the disappearance of the artisan class in the united states as a consequence of mechanization in the early twentieth century
keys：
passage 1： dbcba ba
passage 2： adbae cdba
passage 3： dcadc dca